Formal Lab Report Format

Formal Lab Report Format An appropriately composed proper lab report in CHEM 123L comprises of the accompanying segments: Cover Page ? Give your test a decent, clear title ? Incorporate the date, your name, ID#, TA’s name and partner’s name and area # Introduction and/or Purpose ? Present the foundation material your peruser should comprehend the trial and all pieces of your report. ? Sum up the hidden hypothesis of the investigation and any conditions you will utilize. ? Distinguish the reason for the analysis; what you are attempting to achieve or demonstrate? Test Procedure ? On the off chance that the system in the lab manual was followed precisely, it is adequate to express the accompanying: â€Å"The trial technique utilized for this analysis was plot in the CHEM 123L lab manual, Experiment #1. All means were followed without deviation. â€Å") You should remember your lab manual for your reference segment on the off chance that you utilize this procedure. ? On the off chance that the technique in the lab manual was not followed precisely, you should clarify what was done any other way. ? Imprints are not appointed for the technique, yet will be deducted on the off chance that you do exclude it in your report. Trial Observations ? Present every single exploratory perception; what did you see/hear/feel occurring as the analysis was continuing? ? Enter unique perceptions, for example, loads, volumes, temperatures and so on with units. ? Arrange test information (ie, present your information in a table) at whatever point conceivable, this helps the peruser rapidly look at your information. Incorporate proper table titles, marks and units. ? In some lab reports the perceptions might be joined into the outcomes area. Results and Calculations ? Give one example count to show how each sort of estimation was performed. Utilize fitting units and huge figures. ? Arrange determined outcomes, at whatever point conceivable. Tables must have suitable titles, names and legitimate units. ? Allude to Appendix B: Data Analysis, for data on plotting exploratory information. Conversation ? By and large depict what was done and what was practiced in the lab. What ideas or thoughts did the test demonstrate, appear, strengthen, and so forth ? Contrast test results and qualities found in the writing (assuming any). In the event that your qualities don't concur with writing esteems, talk about why this might be. ? Quickly talk about potential wellsprings of watched blunders. On the off chance that your outcomes are mistaken, clarify what was fouled up in the analysis that may represent the watched outcomes. (Note this isn't a conversation of each conceivable blunder that could conceivably have happened! ) Questions ? Answer all inquiries given in the lab manual in a different area inside your report, except if you are told something else. Ends ? Rehash reason and additionally goals of the analysis and give ends with respect to whether they were accomplished. ? Express all test discoveries with respect to questions ? Remarks with respect to the adequacy or dependability of trial techniques can be made here too References ? Rundown any books or articles that were utilized recorded as a hard copy the lab report (counting those used to address questions) in sequential order request by author(s) or editor(s) name. Incorporate full reference data for each source. ? Continuously refer to references inside the body of your lab report. The favored reference style for Chem 123L is to utilize the creators name and date of distribution in brackets, for instance: Chem 123L understudies are commonly brilliant and curious. (Kramer, 1999) ? By and by, marks are commonly not doled out for the references, however will be deducted on the off chance that you do exclude them in your report. Clearness and Understanding ? An imprint will be relegated for by and large lucidity and comprehension of the trial. Have you introduced your discoveries in a manner that demonstrates you comprehend what you did and why? ? Imprints will be granted for tidiness and association. Don’t make it hard for your TA to check your report!

Use of Estar and Ser with Adjectives of Marital Status

Utilization of Estar and Ser with Adjectives of Marital Status On the off chance that you are figuring out how to communicate in Spanish, you might be pondering which word depicting military status is right - soy casada or estoy casada? The snappy answer is that theyre both right! With descriptive words of conjugal status - ones other than casado (wedded) incorporate soltero (single), divorciado (separated) and viudo (bereaved), alongside their ladylike reciprocals - estar and ser are pretty much exchangeable. Contrast Between Ser and Ester In spite of the fact that the contrasts among ser and estar are normally particular, that just doesnt appear to be so with the descriptors of conjugal status, where youll frequently hear the two action words utilized with little distinction in significance. In certain territories, be that as it may, either might be liked, and estar most likely has an edge in ordinary discourse, in any event with casado. All things considered, utilization of estar can propose (however doesnt consistently) there has been a change in conjugal status. In this way, you may ask another associate  ¿es usted casado? in the event that you consider his to be status as a major aspect of his character. However, you may approach a companion you havent seen for some time  ¿ests casado? as a method of asking, Have you gotten hitched since I saw you last? or on the other hand Are you despite everything hitched? Likenesses With Other Spanish Adjectives The equivalent is valid with not very many descriptive words, for example, gordo (fat) and delgado (dainty), that depict individual attributes. Both es gordo and est gordo can be utilized to state he is fat, for instance. The last frequently proposes that there has been a change, while the previous may recommend only a depiction of the manner in which an individual is. So the decision of action word can recommend a demeanor - estar may propose a condition of being right now, while ser may propose an intrinsic trademark. Actually, that is the most secure approach to settle on your action word decision, and estar must be utilized where to be sure there has been a change. Be that as it may, in ordinary portrayals, the qualification of significance isnt consistently a pointedly clear one.

Marriage as Entrapment for Men and Women in Ibsens A Dolls House Essay

Marriage as Entrapment for Men and Women in Ibsens A Dolls House - Essay Example From the outset, she believes that cash is sufficient to have a glad life, until she understands that she can't be content until she adores herself and she can't cherish somebody she doesn't know by any stretch of the imagination. She breaks all sexual orientation standards when she chooses to leave her family and to make a fresh start. The play utilizes characters, imagery, and incongruity to exhibit the subject of marriage as a representation for detainment since it entangles the two people into delimiting sexual orientation jobs and desires, which are especially disadvantageous for ladies on the grounds that once wedded, they have no opportunity and self-governance to develop as individuals. The characters of the play show manly and ladylike jobs and desires that produce a marriage dependent on sexual orientation disparity. Torvald is the common manly generalization who is required to control his family’s issues, including his wife’s. As a spouse and a dad, he consid ers himself to be the predominant provider and wellspring of expert in his family. He exceptionally values his job as a provider in light of the fact that in his general public, a fruitful man is somebody who has a major pay and high economic wellbeing. He tells his better half: â€Å"It is stunning to feel that one has a splendidly sheltered arrangement and a large enough income† (Ibsen Act 1). Society conditions men to consider cash more often than not on the grounds that cash gives them influence, thus Torvald needs to control the wellspring of cash in his family unit. In addition, Torvald’s man centric perspectives can be found by they way he treats his better half, for example, when he considers her a â€Å"little lark† or a â€Å"little squirrel† (Ibsen Act 1). He additionally accepts that it is â€Å"like a woman† to not think about the outcomes of their activities (Ibsen Act 1). Torvald considers his to be as a â€Å"little† object, somebody who is substandard compared to him since she is a lady. Besides, Torvald even believes that shamelessness originates from ladies, not men. He tells Nora: â€Å"Almost everybody who has gone to the awful from the get-go in life has had a tricky mother† (Ibsen Act 1). Nora is very outraged with this conviction, however Torvald sincerely believes that awful individuals are for the most part results of awful moms, which demonstrates his poor impression of ladies. With such a low assessment of ladies, he regards his significant other as his doll, somebody he can and should control to her benefit. He doesn't permit Nora to have a public activity, which Nora affirms for Mrs. Linde: â€Å"Torvald is so foolishly enamored with me that he needs me completely to himself, as he says† (Ibsen Act 2). Torvald doesn't need Nora to develop as an individual since she may be a risk to his power. Rather, he keeps her secured up their home and guarantees that she relies upon him f or cash and social relationship. Two ladies show the consequence of following socially-created sexual orientation standards. Mrs. Linde speaks to ladies who are hitched to their sexual orientation jobs and obligations. She doesn't wed for affection, however for cash since she needs to support her family. She is down to earth, yet in a way that pushed her to forfeit her satisfaction, which is typical for her time since society anticipates that ladies should have no self-governance and to be committed in satisfying the unlimited needs of their families. Like Mrs. Linde, Nora depicts the female generalization. She is a lady who is hitched to her parenthood and spousal obligations, while speaking to the ladylike generalization of a shallow prodigal. Her sole obligation is to guarantee the bliss of her family, particularly her better half, and to perform customary working class female jobs. She purchases things required in their home, oversees the government assistance of her youngsters, oversees budgetary undertakings, and remains inside their home however much as could be expected. At the end of the day, she is stuck to her jobs as a spouse and a mother. She is such a customary lady, that

The Insider Secret on Experiential Learning Essay Samples of Animal Shelter Volunteering Discovered

The Insider Secret on Experiential Learning Essay Samples of Animal Shelter Volunteering Discovered These qualities are indispensable to anybody working with the animals in they can have the ability to interpret the way the animals respond to several environments. The majority of them rejected them yet they are among the absolute most humbled animals that is easily tamed by anyone including a young child. Working in an animal shelter is an excellent experience where one is educated on the best way to manage animals. Animal issues vary from one neighborhood to another. Here are 10 reasons why you need to volunteer at your regional animal shelter. Employed as a shelter volunteer, you will learn so much about what it requires to look after animals. Interested volunteers have to be comfortable with dogs. From burnout to stolen animals, you may be surprised at what shelter workers need to deal with. It's been observed that uncontrolled animals pose a danger to human beings. That life isn't as serious as it looks. Animal behavior isn't something which is set in stone. From the above mentioned experiment, it's been depicted that animals are social beings that may be affected by the social nature of the human beings. Choosing Good Experiential Learning Essay Samples of Animal Shelter Volunteering Each one that you handle presents a completely different set of personality traits and training problems. It's challenging work, but nevertheless, it may also be a rewarding procedure. The absolute most efficient format for cover letters can fluctuate , depending upon the opportunities they're targeting. Let them know how shocking it was to discover that you could actually do it. Folks often make the error of not listening carefully. To begin with, understand what you need done, states Downey. What You Should Do to Find Out About Experiential Learning Essay Samples of Animal Shelter Volunteering Before You're Left Behind That paperwork can be faxed to us at 812-349-3440 or you're able to bring it with you on your very first visit. You might be able to be placed on a volunteer waitlist. As soon as I began volunteering, I was searching for a mentor. This will help to make certain that you don't need to do all your volunteering in your free time, and will help you keep committed to and accountable for your volunteer responsibilities. Volunteers who are 13-15 decades old has to be accompanied by a legal guardian whatsoever times. When you find the very same people weekly, you say hello and really get to understand them. I've met some of my best friends. It would give people somewhere to volunteer at, and possibly even adopt a pet should they choose to. Experiential Learning Essay Samples of Animal Shelter Volunteering - What Is It? If you're able to afford 1 hour of your time, you could earn a massive difference in the life span of an animal. Additionally, it aims at discovering an appropriate region that may be used by the community for walking their dogs and playing with them just away from the shelter. Don't hesitate to intend on staying the day, if you would really like! If you don't observe that animal daily, it gets even harder. Employed as a volunteer is likely to make someone feel as though they are helping people and making a difference on the planet. It follows that anyone who offers to help c an expect to get shown proper methods of caring for animals, basic routines, and other details that ought to be known. If you're searching for work, volunteering is a great way to add experience and references for your course of life. Remember that, as I said previously, volunteer work isn't all fun. Experiential Learning Essay Samples of Animal Shelter Volunteering at a Glance But volunteering with a group of individuals who you already know have a minumum of one of the exact same interests as you do makes it much simpler. Working with people and having the ability to thrive in a diverse atmosphere is critical. A lot of people work unpaid in order to obtain experience in rather competitive fields like television, but some people can not describe them as volunteers. Eudaimonic well-being from volunteering are resulted when folks feel they matter on earth. Regrettably, in some specific instances it's necessary, given the present resources our regional community and the state need to offer. We need enthusiastic men and women that are eager to lead small group tours and assist with lessons locally. Community service is a good way for teens to learn how to give back to society and it seems good on college applications. Additionally, there are many national organizations devoted to placing volunteers where they're needed most. Volunteering is a rewarding experience, regardless of the period of time you are able to spare! Take trips and visit different organizations to discover about their programs. If that's the case, volunteering at an animal hospital, for example, would be a good opportunity. Read our volunteer requirements and finish our on-line volunteer application form.

Benedictine College Admissions ACT Scores, Admit Rate

Religion, Spirituality, Faith, And Perceptions About...

Religion is a guideline for social conduct; additionally one may conclude of the gospel, and superstitious practices are the closest perceptible occurrence humans can term ‘magic. There are several definitions of the word religion because no one seems concise. One proper definition, according to Merriam-Webster, is â€Å"Religion is a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes, beliefs, and practices† (Merriam-Webster, 2015). One might think that this distinguishing definition is most suitable for the purpose of this assignment. This paper will discuss the interviews of three different people who associate themselves with a particular religion. Hiawatha Macomb, Maxine Hawthorne, and Christian X will answer questions about their beliefs concerning religion, spirituality, faith, and perceptions about religion. In brief, the participants will have honest discussions about their beliefs in God and the supernatural. First of all, the paper will begin with Hiawatha Macomb because Mr. Hiawatha’s parents are both Senior Pastors of a large historical church. One might think that because of Mr. Hiawatha’s parents, and upbringing that he would be deeply religious. Hiawatha considers himself a spiritual person and considers calling him ‘religious’ insulting. An analysis from the Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion Public Life confirms a decline in religious adherence among American adults and increase in secular world-views. (Pew Research Center, 2012).Show MoreRelatedThe Use Of Art, Sculptures And Architecture1559 Words   |  7 Pagesthey think about Michelangelo, Van Gogh, or Picasso. But, religion has a great influence on the art scene. Religions use art to emphasise their faith and its importance. Christianity art is solely based upon Jesus, his followers and saints. Throughout history Christian art has been connected to mainstream idea of art. However, ther e are several other religions that demonstrate their faith through art, sculptures, and architecture. Aboriginal spirituality solely bases the art off the faith. InsteadRead MoreThe Theory Of Religion And Spirituality1481 Words   |  6 PagesA Gallup poll indicated that religion is a â€Å"very important† part of the lives of approximately 67% of the American public, of whom 96% believe in God and 42% attend religious services regularly (Powell, Shahabi, Thoresen, 2003). People join religious institutions and follow spiritual paths for a variety of reasons, such as faith, prayer, social support, cultural traditions, commitment to the community, and more. The role of religion in people’s lives is dramatic and research on the topic has mirroredRead More`` Heaven Is For Real ``933 Words   |  4 Pagescontinued telling them things about Jesus, God, and heaven that he couldn t possibly have known at his young age. He describes the heavenly thrones, the triune God, and angels. Colton says he met a sister he never knew he had. It was a child that Sonja had miscarried. He even knew all about Pop, Todd s grandfather, who had died long before the boy was born. Todd is amazed at how his son descriptions match up with passages from the Holy Bible that the child knew nothing about. At one point he even identifiesRead MorePersonal Worldview Inventory. A â€Å"Worldview† Is The Term1231 Words   |  5 Pagescan be determined by religion (Grand Canyon University [GCU], 2015) or by family customs; therefore, individual’s worldview is something that was not developed over night. It is something the person has learned and believed to be true their whole life which direct the way they think, see the world around them and make decisions. With the different view and mindsets of individuals, it is complicated to make everyone happy and this can create tension between science and religion. 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According to Koenig (1989), religion incorporates people’s rituals, beliefs, and practices pertaining to theRead MoreThe Spiritual Factor Of African American Males Attending A White Christian Institutions1359 Words   |  6 Pages The Spiritual Factor: Examining the role spirituality plays in the development of African American Males attending Predominately White Christian Institutions Abstract This study examined the role that spirituality plays in the development of African American males who attend predominately white Christian institutions (PCIs). This hermeneutic phenomenological study focused on Christian college students who were African American males ages 18-21 and identified as evangelical Christian. FindingsRead MoreThe Role Of Spiritual Development On College Students Essay1569 Words   |  7 Pagesuncomfortable and questions their own beliefs. If they are unsure of where there stand in their spiritual beliefs that may cause them to feel separated from the community. However, being in a religious environment where they can relate to the dominant religion and they feel comfortable can have a positive effect on their well-being. Leadership skills Longman and Lafreniere (2012) suggest that gaining the necessary leadership skills is an important aspects of being involved in diverse programs and beingRead MoreSpiritual Wellbeing : An Integral Part Of Mental, Emotional And Physical Health965 Words   |  4 PagesProject: Spiritual Wellbeing Spiritual wellbeing is an integral part of mental, emotional and physical health. It is considered to be a primary coping resource on the journey of recovering and healing. Spiritual wellbeing can also be associated with religion but does not have to be. It is considered to be a journey to find importance in life and the role you will play among them with the overarching purpose to find meaning to life. 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There are seven differences between Spirituality and Religion that will help one understand what spirituality actually is (Davchevske, D. 2014). I will identify the transactions someone with substance abuse disorder should follow in order to rekindle their Spirituality through a recovery process

The 1977 Occupation of Bastion Point- Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the 1977 Occupation of Bastion Point. Answer: A Brief Description of the Key Issues The occupation of the Bastion Point by the Whatua people and subsequent confiscation by the New Zealand government marked the long land protests by its occupants (Harris, 2004: New Zealand History, 2016). The Bastion Point (commonly known as Takaparawhau in M?ori) is a coastal piece of land that is closer to the Waitemata Harbour. Due to the land proximity to the harbor, the New Zealand government took over its ownership by setting a defense base against the Russian army (Waitangi Tribunal, 2016). Between the 1940s and 1950s, the land was primarily used for public works and developments. In fact, in 1941 the land was allocated to the Auckland city council. Nonetheless, the major issue about the land occurred in 1967 when the government decided to sell the Bastion Point to the highest corporate bidder for development (Harris, 2004). The government, however, offered to return a portion of the land to the Maori people but the Maoris wanted the entire land given back to them. Consequentl y, activists Piriniha Reweti and Joe Hawke and other Maori people formed the Orakei M?ori Action Committee (OMAC), a movement that pushed for the reinstatement (Hawke, 1998). Later, a group of Maori was opposed to the return of the land's portion while another group agreed to the decision. The movement and the different views of the Maori people met numerous challenges. Primarily, this paper assesses the concerns, motivations, challenges and the consequences of the challenges that the Maori community faced in the struggle towards regaining their land. The Primary Concerns and Motivations of the Protesting Group Despite the Maori agreement to offer their land to the government for public use, mainly for the area defense purposes, the land was not returned to the Maori owners long after the government was done with her mission (Hawke, 1998). Instead, there was the proposal to transform the Bastion Point into a robust economic base by selling the land to the investors. The Maori Affairs Amendment Act of 1967 was perceived by the Maori as a conspiracy to grab the land from them. The implementation of the Act fueled protests among the Maori people (Moule, 2013). The Bastion point was the ancestral land to the Ngati Whatua. However, the passing of the Treaty of Waitangi, first signed in 1840, by some of the Maori chiefs and the British Crown representatives was one of the major concerns of the Maori people (Hill, 2010). Additionally, the Maori was split upon the government's announcement that it would refund some land to the owners. Consequently, activist Hawke and his followers adopted a nonviolent action while the other led by Reweti chose to compromise. The former was concerned about the houses on the land confiscated and that which the government claimed to own. For this reason, in 1977 the Orakei M?ori Action Committee arranged for the land occupation to prevent the grabbing of the Bastion Point. Unfortunately, a meeting that was scheduled to take place on 15th January 1977 was met with division among the Orakei M?ori Action Committee. While the elders complied with the government's offer that did not satisfy the needs of the Ngati Whatu a, the young of the Bastion Point were opposed to the idea. Therefore, the Reweti's group wanted their ten acres while the action group wanted to have control over the marae (the sacred place that served the societal needs) as well as the under-developed government lands. Following the dispute, the Action Group was adamant and driven by motivation. They, therefore, presented 243 signatures that supported the control of the marae shrine and reinstatement of the British Crown lands, 4800 signatures pushing for the return of the Bastion Point or make it remain in Auckland, and some 59 signatures supporting the actions of the Orakei M?ori Action Committee. The Protestors' Challenges The protestors faced some challenges throughout their fight for the Bastion Point. Firstly, the break up between the Maori people and the Orakei M?ori Action Committee was a major setback (Morrison, 1999). The protestors and those who chose to compromise (Reweti moderates) had varying views. For this reason, each group was weakened, a factor that gave the government power over the protestors. Additionally, the Orakei M?ori Action Committee group was powerless, and this almost led to the total disintegration of the group. Nonetheless, the OMAC became stronger following the rejoinder of hundreds of the Maori people (Morrison, 1999). Their 507 occupancy of the Bastion Point abruptly came to an end in 1978 (Mita, Narbey Pohlmann, 1980). According to Mita and the colleagues, the New Zealand government deployed a total of 800 soldiers and police officers who forcefully evacuated the Maori people from the Bastion point. Moreover, they destroyed the peoples' farms, meeting houses and the bu ildings and also arrested 222 protestors. Even more alarming to the Ngati Whatua was the construction of the sewer within the village and that which disposed of the waste into the sea. The Ngati Whatua people were denied connection to the sewer and were no also allowed to improve their housing (Moule, 2013). In other words, it means that the Ngati Whatuas also faced economic challenges and their well-being undermined. Another major setback was the government's failure to honor the people's petitions. Upon the submission of their three petitions, the government promised the Action group that she would return the land but in phases (Waitangi Tribunal Division, 1990). Nonetheless, the government crafted some poor bills that were not implemented whatsoever. Again, the dishonoring of the bills aggravated the differences between the Ngati Whatua iwi groups. However, 1975 was again met with another protest led by Whina Cooper took place. Whina led a match (hikoi) that took a month. It proceeded from Te Hapua in the far north. The climax of it saw the Iwi Maori people assemble in the front of the Wellington government premises. The match received a lot of publicity, and there were more protests against the government. Other protestors whose land had also been confiscated by the government joined the match. Unfortunately, the government retaliation was one that left the protestors with injuries and arrests . In general, the Ngati Whatua residents were unyielding to the New Zealand government decision to deny them the rights to their land (Morrison, 1999). The government, on the other hand, was also unwilling to let it go so easily. Consequently, it used incentives to the Bastion Point owners to allow the government have dominion over the land. However, some of the group especially the Maori elders and the Reweti moderates were quick to give in the offers while the Action group was against the proposal. In this case, therefore, there was weakened ally of the Whatua. Considerably, the different views and ensuing breakup of the group is what led the government's to have power over them at some point. It is thus evident that the Ngati Whatua people faced untold challenges in their struggle for the return of their land. The Consequences of the Protests One would argue that the implications of the protesting were twofold (.Te Ara, 2016) That is, they were both positive and negative. The latter involved forceful eviction of the Ngati Whatua from their land, loss of property, police and army brutality, the breaking up of the once strong and resilient Maori group, and the government's failure to fulfill promises. The Ngati Whatua was highly concerned about their ancestral land, the sacred places of the Bastion Point as well as their culture (Morrison, 2013). Their land, argues Te Ara (2016) gave them identity and sense of belonging. Thus, any decision to deprive them of their land meant the loss of identity. On the contrary, the Ngati Whatua people, through unbound protests and petitions successfully regained their land and identity (Williams, 2009). This was one of the major positive consequences of their protests. The Takaparawha was a significant ground to the Ngati Whatua people according to Morrison, (2013). The retention of the ground meant an important struggle that the Bastion Point dwellers faced (Barlow, 2012). Its loss, however, was equivalent to a death blow to the dignity and honor of the Ngati Whatua people. The Bastion Point turning point according to Barlow (2012) finally came in the 1980's when the New Zealand government apologized to the Ngati Whatua people. The 1987 report of the Waitangi Tribunal passed the return of the Bastion Point and the Okahu Park to the Ngati Whatua people (Department of Justice, 1990). The tribunal proposed the use of the land as public domain (Kawharu, 1989).According to Kawharu (1989) the sacred place, marae, urupa and the Okahu church were also returned. Additionally, the government also gave a $ 3 million compensation that was to be used for establishing the economy of the Ngati Whatua people (Williams, 2009). In conclusion, it inarguable that the struggle over the Bastion Point by the Ngati Whatua people has a long history. It marked the most significant struggle over land in the history of the New Zeland. It is also evident that the Ngati Whatua people were met with numerous challenges in their journey towards regaining their land. However, the desire to regain their identity and re-establish themselves precipitated their resilience. Moreover, their struggle came to fruition when the New Zealand government through the tribunal ordered the return of the land to its owners. References Barlow, J. (2012, January 5). Today is the day Protest a turning point for Maori. Wellington, New Zealand: Dominion Post. Department of Justice (Waitangi Tribunal Division). (1990). Orakei, Bastion Point: Case study of a claim to the Waitangi Tribunal. Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Justice. Harris, A. (2004). H?koi: Forty years of M?ori protest. Huia Publishers. Hawke, S. (1998). Takaparawhau: The people's story - 1998 Bastion Point 20 year commemoration book. Orakei, New Zealand: Moko Productions. Hill, R. (2010). Maori and the State: CrownMaori Relations in New Zealand/Aotearoa, 1950 2000. Victoria University Press. Kawharu, I. H. (1989) (Ed.). Mana and the crown: A marae at Orakei. In Waitangi: Maori andPakeha perspectives of the Treaty of Waitangi (pp. 211-233). Auckland, New Zealand: Oxford University Press. Mita, M., Narbey, L., Pohlmann, G. (1980). Bastion Point, day 507 [Documentary]. Auckland,New Zealand: Pohlmann Production. Morrison, B. (1999). Bastion Point: The untold story [Documentary]. Auckland, New Zealand: William Grieve Sharon Hawke. Morrison, R. (2013). Bastion Point/Takaparawhau: A decade of days Auckland through Robin Morrisons eyes. Auckland, New Zealand: Auckland War Memorial Museum. Moule, S., (2013). M?ori land protests: Hikoi and Bastion Point [video recording]. Bendigo, Victoria: Video Education Australasia. New Zealand Herald. (2008, June 27). After Bastion Point: Tribe wants solid economic base. New Zealand Herald, n.p. New Zealand History. (2016). Bastion Point. Accessed on August 25th 2017, from https://www.nzhistory.net.nz/keyword/bastion-point Te Ara. (2016). Bastion Point protest. Accessed on August 25th 2017, from https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/video/16199/bastion-point-protest Waitangi Tribunal. (2016). The loss of the Orakei block. Accessed on August 25th 2017, from https://www.justice.govt.nz/tribunals/waitangi-tribunal/resources/teaching-aids/resource- kits/orakei/the-loss-of-the-orakei-block Williams, D. V. (2009). Seeking justice for the historical claims of indigenous people in Aotearoa New Zealand. Marginalized Communities and Access to Justice, 109.

Ems Case Study Essay Example

Ems Case Study Essay A CT was ordered and revealed lesions on the left brain about 2-3 cams long. Patient was scheduled to leave for Texas tomorrow for further evaluation. Patients wife describes this recent event as mild ticks to the left arm with short Intermittent breaks In seizure activity. Patients vital signs were 136/78 with a pulse of 112. Breath sounds are clear and heart sounds are normal. DNS reveal diminished grip in left arm. Wife states this is normal since his previous seizure on July 1st. Patients skin pink, warm and mildly diaphragmatic. Patients LOC is diminished. Patient can respond briefly to verbal commands. Patient is experiencing mild focal motor seizure activity to the left arm and head/neck. Patients lab data Is normal with the exception of his Together level. Patients Together is currently 4. 2 vs.. A normal range of 8- 12. Patients liver enzymes were currently normal which Is Improved from his July 1st levels that were low. Patient is currently taking: Disappear, OMG DID for the treatment of seizures. Fomentation MGM BID for a peptic ulcer. Together MGM BID for treatment of seizures. Viding, 2-3 q-err PR for pain relief. PA ordered establishment of IV with a saline lock, 02 at 4 Imp by NC and 3-lead monitoring. Divan 0. Ml given IPP to relieve seizure. MESS PLAN OF ACTION Protect the patient from harm and do nothing If seizure last less than two minutes. If seizure Is prolonged (>2 minutes) protect patients airway and provide suction as needed. Establish large bore IV with normal saline at TOOK and provide 02 as Indicated. Consider and obtain order for Vellum 5-MGM VISP or Versed OMG IM If IV access is not available. May also give Versed 2. OMG IV if needed. Establish baseline vials Ana moonlit caracal urn Hoyt. I rainspout AS We will write a custom essay sample on Ems Case Study specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Ems Case Study specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Ems Case Study specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Major General George H. Thomas in the American Civil War

Major General George H. Thomas in the American Civil War George Henry Thomas was born July 31, 1816, at Newsoms Depot, VA. Growing up on a plantation, Thomas was one of many who violated the law and taught his familys slaves to read. Two years after his fathers death in 1829, Thomas and his mother led his siblings to safety during Nat Turners bloody slave rebellion. Pursued by Turners men, the Thomas family was forced to abandon their carriage and flee on foot through the woods. Racing through Mill Swamp and the bottomlands of the Nottoway River, the family found safety at the county seat of Jerusalem, VA. Shortly thereafter, Thomas became an assistant to his uncle James Rochelle, the local clerk of court, with the goal of becoming a lawyer. West Point After a short time, Thomas became unhappy with his legal studies and approached Representative John Y. Mason regarding an appointment to West Point.   Though warned by Mason that no student from the district had ever successfully completed the academys course of study, Thomas accepted the appointment. Arriving at age 19, Thomas shared a room with William T. Sherman. Becoming friendly rivals, Thomas soon developed a reputation among the cadets for being deliberate and cool-headed. His class also included future Confederate commander Richard S. Ewell. Graduating 12th in his class, Thomas was commissioned as a second lieutenant and assigned to the 3rd US Artillery. Early Assignments Dispatched for service in the Second Seminole War in Florida, Thomas arrived at Fort Lauderdale, FL in 1840. Initially serving as infantry, he and his men conducted routine patrols in the area.   His performance in this role earned him a brevet promotion to first lieutenant on November 6, 1841. While in Florida, Thomas commanding officer stated, I never knew him to be late or in a hurry. All his movements were deliberate, his self-possession was supreme, and he received and gave orders with equal serenity. Departing Florida in 1841, Thomas saw subsequent service at New Orleans, Fort Moultrie (Charleston, SC), and Fort McHenry (Baltimore, MD). Mexico With the outbreak of the Mexican-American War in 1846, Thomas served with Major General Zachary Taylors army in northeastern Mexico. After performing admirably at the Battles of Monterrey and Buena Vista, he was brevetted to captain and then major. During the fighting, Thomas served closely with future antagonist Braxton Bragg and earned high praise from Brigadier General John E. Wool. With the conflicts conclusion, Thomas briefly returned to Florida before receiving the post of instructor of artillery at West Point in 1851. Impressing West Points superintendent, Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee, Thomas was also given the duties of cavalry instructor. Back to West Point In this role, Thomas earned the lasting nickname Old Slow Trot due to his constant restraining of the cadets from galloping the academys elderly horses. The year after arriving, he married Frances Kellogg, the cousin of a cadet from Troy, NY. During his time at West Point, Thomas instructed Confederate horsemen  J.E.B. Stuart and Fitzhugh Lee as well as voted against reinstating future subordinate John Schofield after his dismissal from West Point. Appointed a major in the 2nd Cavalry in 1855, Thomas was assigned to the Southwest. Serving under Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston and Lee, Thomas combated the Native Americans for the remainder of the decade. On August 26, 1860, he narrowly avoided death when an arrow glanced off his chin and hit his chest. Pulling the arrow out, Thomas had the wound dressed and returned to action. Though painful, it was to be the only wound that he would sustain throughout his long career. The Civil War Returning home on leave, Thomas requested a year-long leave of absence in November 1860. He suffered further when he badly injured his back during a fall from a train platform in Lynchburg, VA. As he recovered, Thomas became concerned as states began leaving the Union after the election of Abraham Lincoln. Turning down Governor John Letchers offer to become Virginias chief of ordnance, Thomas stated that he wished to remain loyal to the United States as long as it was honorable for him to do so. On April 12, the day that the Confederates opened fire on Fort Sumter, he informed his family in Virginia that he intended to remain in federal service. Promptly disowning him, they turned his portrait to face the wall and refused to forward his belongings. Labeling Thomas a turncoat, some Southern commanders, such as Stuart threatened to hang him as a traitor if he was captured. Though he remained loyal, Thomas was hampered by his Virginia roots for the duration of the war as some in the North did not fully trust him and he lacked political backing in Washington. Quickly promoted to lieutenant colonel and then colonel in May 1861, he led a brigade in the Shenandoah Valley and won a minor victory over troops led by Brigadier General Thomas Stonewall Jackson. Building a Reputation In August, with officers like Sherman vouching for him, Thomas was promoted to brigadier general. Posted to the Western Theater, he provided the Union with one its first victories in January 1862, when he defeated Confederate troops under Major General George Crittenden at the Battle of Mill Springs in eastern Kentucky. As his command was part of Major General Don Carlos Buells Army of the Ohio, Thomas was among those who marched to Major General Ulysses S. Grants aid during the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862. Promoted to major general on April 25, Thomas was given command of the Right Wing of Major General Henry Hallecks army. The bulk of this command was made of up of men from Grants Army of the Tennessee. Grant, who had been removed from field command by Halleck, was angered by this and resented Thomas position. While Thomas led this formation during the Siege of Corinth, he rejoined Buells army in June when Grant returned to active service. That fall, when Confederate General Braxton Bragg invaded Kentucky, the Union leadership offered Thomas command of the Army of the Ohio as it felt Buell was too cautious. Supporting Buell, Thomas refused this offer and served as his second-in-command at the Battle of Perryville that October. Though Buell compelled Bragg to retreat, his slow pursuit cost him his job and Major General William Rosecrans was given command on October 24. Serving under Rosecrans, Thomas led the center of the newly named Army of the Cumberland at the Battle of Stones River on December 31-January 2. Holding the Union line against Braggs attacks, he prevented a Confederate victory. The Rock of Chickamauga Later that year, Thomas XIV Corps played a key role in Rosecrans Tullahoma Campaign which saw Union troops maneuver Braggs army out of central Tennessee. The campaign culminated with the Battle of Chickamauga that September. Attacking Rosecrans army, Bragg was able to shatter the Union lines. Forming his corps on Horseshoe Ridge and Snodgrass Hill, Thomas mounted a stubborn defense as the rest of the army retreated. Finally retiring after nightfall, the action earned Thomas the nickname The Rock of Chickamauga. Retreating to Chattanooga, Rosecrans army was effectively besieged by the Confederates. Though he did not have good personal relations with Thomas, Grant, now in command of the Western Theater, relieved Rosecrans and gave the Army of the Cumberland to the Virginian. Tasked with holding the city, Thomas did so until Grant arrived with additional troops. Together, the two commanders began driving Bragg back during the Battle of Chattanooga, November 23-25, which culminated with Thomas men capturing Missionary Ridge. With his promotion to Union general-in-chief in the spring of 1864, Grant designated Sherman to lead the armies in the West with orders to capture Atlanta. Remaining in command of the Army of the Cumberland, Thomas troops were one of three armies overseen by Sherman. Fighting a number of battles through the summer, Sherman succeeded in taking the city on September 2. As Sherman prepared for his March to the Sea, Thomas and his men were sent back to Nashville to prevent Confederate General John B. Hood from attacking Union supply lines. Moving with a smaller number of men, Thomas raced to beat Hood to Nashville where Union reinforcements were heading. En route, a detachment of Thomas force defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin on November 30. Concentrating at Nashville, Thomas hesitated to organize his army, obtain mounts for his cavalry, and wait for ice to melt. Believing Thomas was being too cautious, Grant threatened to relieve him and dispatched Major General John Logan to take command. On December 15, Thomas attacked Hood and won a stunning victory. The victory marked one of the few times during the war that an enemy army was effectively destroyed. Later Life Following the war, Thomas held various military posts across the South. President Andrew Johnson offered him the rank of lieutenant general to be Grants successor, but Thomas declined as he wished to avoid the politics of Washington. Taking command of the Division of the Pacific in 1869, he died at the Presidio of a stroke on March 28, 1870.

Contemporary discourse in design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Contemporary discourse in design - Essay Example This ranged from making their homes more comfortable such as the case of the homeless of New York to making their homes more secure such as the case of Antonelli’s Grace Under Pressure. But the profundity of the meaning of home is best illustrated by the experience of the city dwellers of New York who managed to create a home out of a cart when they opted to live in the streets than in an institution. There, the city dwellers in New York showed that home is not just a physical structure or a dwelling but rather a place of comfort where one can be â€Å"at home†. There, the cart dwellers of New York illustrated that comfort does not only mean physical implements nor devices nor machines, but rather a place where one can be at ease with his surroundings. They opted to call a cart home where they can barely fit to live rather than stay than in an institution with all the amenities and provisions but does not treat them as human beings. The cart dwellers of New York came fi rst in the discussion of the expression of home, its design and its importance because they demonstrated the basic concept of what constitute a home; that home can be still home even if it cannot house or even if it is not a house. This is very important to stress because we always equate house with a home and the cart dwellers of New York demonstrated that it is not the case; that they are not synonymous with each other. You can â€Å"house† a person or a group of person such as what the city government of New York did to the homeless people of New York but you cannot just automatically make them feel at home and so they left. A house or structure has to have several components before it can be considered a home and a mere structure does not suffice to make it a home. Had we inferred home to be synonymous with structure or house, it would be incomprehensible why the homeless of New York City left the institution. The structure was imposing that could withstand any cruelty of nature. It is also secure from the onslaught of the outside world because it is guarded. Above all, the facility is free and its residents are assured of a steady supply of food and provision. Despite of all of this, the homeless of New York still left the facility. This is quite incomprehensible because it is not the nature of man to gallivant. His body is frail and meant for domesticated and sheltered stay that could become easily vulnerable to the elements. Unlike the beast whose body allows it to hunt when it roams around, man’s body will succumb to the elements when it is not sheltered. Yet, the homeless of New York preferred the uncertainty of the street rather than stay in the government run facilities. Close examination of the facility revealed why the residents left. True, it provides food and shelter but the condition and treatment of its residents made it far from being a home. â€Å"City-run shelters-though they provide food and respite from the elements-are dan gerous and unfriendly places that impose a dehumanizing, even prisonlike, regimentation on residents. Guards routinely treat clients as inmates, allegedly denying them food for the violation of rules. Some shelter residents are abused from place to place for food, showers, and sleep. Charges of violence by shelter security guards and clients are common2† This report only revealed that people will not endure shabby treatment just to have a

Business Basics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business Basics - Essay Example Secondly, Martha knows that she will be the sole owner of the business when she starts-up as a sole proprietor. She is going to posses all authority and makes decision on behalf of the Apex Company. She will as well have the mandate to sell or transfer the company to another individual business and make important business decisions at her discretion. Probably, the accountants concerns about running a sole proprietorship business are the risks that are involved mainly to the owner of the business. Legally, these risks are not treated separately from the business. They seem to be aware of some of the disadvantages of sole proprietorship business. They know that a sole proprietorship business has a liability disadvantage or risk. When Martha starts-up Apex as a sole proprietor business, she will be held directly responsible for any debts, losses, or violations that come from the business. For example, if the company incurs debts that must be paid back, Martha as the sole owner will repay the debts from her own personal funds. Again, she can be sued for any unlawful acts done by the employees, which is unlike other business structures. Additionally, if she becomes deceased or incapacitated the business will not continue since the owner and the business are treated as one (Madura, 2007). A partnership business is formed by two or more people who wish to come together to start a business. For a new business structure, partnership is a good choice of legal structure (Madura, 2007). This type of business has several advantages and disadvantages as discussed below. Capital- because of the business nature, the partners are the ones to fund the business with the start-up capital. The more partners they are, the more money they contribute for the business, which allows potential growth and flexibility. This also means more profit, which will

Spontaneous Recovery and Extinction Essay Example for Free

Spontaneous Recovery and Extinction Essay Spontaneous recovery from extinction is one of the most basic phenomena of Pavlovian conditioning. Although it can be studied by using a variety of designs, some procedures are better than others for identifying the involvement of underlying learning processes. A wide range of different learning mechanisms has been suggested as being engaged by extinction, most of which have implications for the nature of spontaneous recovery. However, despite the centrality of the notion of spontaneous recovery to the understanding of extinction, the empirical literature on its determinants is relatively sparse and quite mixed. Its very ubiquity suggests that spontaneous recovery has multiple sources. Previous SectionNext Section Experimental extinction is one of the fundamental observations of Pavlovian conditioning. Just as the arranging of a positive relation between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) produces acquisition of conditioned responding, breaking that relation produces extinction of that responding. However, similar to many terms in the behavioral sciences, the word â€Å"extinction† is used in at least three different senses: as a procedure, as a result, and as an explanation. If we are to understand extinction experiments, it is extremely important that we keep these senses distinct from each other. One use of the term is as an experimental procedure or independent variable under the control of the experimenter, as when one says, â€Å"Following learning, we subjected the animal to an extinction procedure.† Most frequently, this is meant to refer to a procedure in which the original conditions of learning are disrupted. The most common extinction proce dure consists of presenting a stimulus alone, so that it now fails to signal the outcome. However, other procedures, such as retaining the US but arranging for it to be independent of the CS are also available and of interest (see Rescorla 2001a). Another use of the term is as an experimental result or dependent variable under the control of the animal, as when one says, â€Å"When the stimulus was presented alone, the behavior extinguished.† The prototypical example is one in which responding that was established by training deteriorates, often to a level such as that prior to learning. A third use of the term extinction is as a process or  intervening variable that is intended to provide an explanation, as when one says, â€Å"When we arranged for the stimulus to be presented alone, the behavior deteriorated because of extinction.† Normally, it is this process that is of interest. We would like to understand the basis of the change in behavior resulting from the change in procedure, whether that understanding is achieved at a conceptual or a neural level . Consequently, throughout this article the term extinction will refer to the learning process inferred when the procedure produces a particular result. When there is the possibility of misunderstanding, the phrase â€Å"extinction process† will be used. Because interest primarily centers on the learning process that occurs as a result of an extinction procedure, it is important to separate that learning from a wide variety of other effects that govern performance. The issue here is analogous to that of understanding the learning that occurs during an acquisition procedure. Elsewhere we have argued that the measurement of learning demands attention to two points in time: t1, during which the opportunity to learn is given, and then a separate t2, during which an assessment is made of that learning (see Rescorla and Holland 1976; Rescorla 1988). The comparison that indicates that learning has occurred is that between two animals (or two stimuli or responses) given a common t2 test following different opportunities for learning at t1. This comparison is superior to the common alternative of examining responding during t1, at which the animals are receiving different learning treatments. Data taken during t1 necessarily confound the differences in the current circumstances under which learning is assessed with differences in the learning that prior treatments might have produced. We have argued that for this reason acquisition curves are in fact deeply flawed as a way to measure learning. A similar point applies to the learning that occurs in extinction. In this case, we need to administer a common test for stimuli or animals given different extinction experiences, as indicated in the first portion of Figure 1. In the simplest case, we can compare responding to two stimuli (S1 and S2) at a common t2 after both have had the same initial acquisition but then differ in whether or not they were given extinction at t1. Differences in t2 test performance would then index the differences in learning that occurred at t1. Clearly, comparisons between stimuli during the t1 extinction experience are of limited value because any differences might be  the product of the current conditions of testing rather than of the memory for the learning that has occurred. That is, extinction curves are of very limited use in understanding the underlying process. Figure 1 View larger version: In this page In a new window Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 1 Experimental designs for the study of extinction and spontaneous recovery. (A) A recommended procedure for studying extinction, in which the critical comparison is responding to S1 and S2 at a common test time when the two stimuli differ in their extinction history. (B) The design in which spontaneous recovery is sometimes inferred from the greater responding to S1 during test than during extinction. (C) A better spontaneous recovery design in which S1 and S2 are both trained and extinction, but then tested for recovery after different time periods. (D) An alternative design in which S1 and S2 are tested in a common test session, despite different times between extinction and test. In this context, the phenomenon of spontaneous recovery has a complex role. That phenomenon suggests that the results that we obtain in a t2 assessment may be quite different depending on the length of time that intervenes between the t1 extinction experience and the t2 test. It has been known since Pavlovs (1927) early experiments that the loss of behavior that results from presenting the stimulus alone at t1 is not entirely permanent. Rather, with the passage of time following nonreinforcement, there is some â€Å"spontaneous recovery† of the initially learned behavior. Introducing greater time delays between t1 extinction treatment and t2 test provides the opportunity for greater spontaneous recovery. At minimum, the phenomenon of spontaneous recovery provides some information about what process fails to account for the loss of behavior when an extinction procedure is conducted. It suggests that the loss does not simply involve the removal of what was learned in acquisition. As Pavlov noted, if an extinction procedure had erased the acquisition learning, then there would be no basis for behavior to return with time. It suggests that instead something happens during the extinction procedure that temporarily  suppresses performance while leaving some of the initial learning in place. Of course, the finding of spontaneous recovery does not imply that there is no removal of the initial learning or even that there was any learning during extinction. It only implies that some of the initial learning survives an extinction procedure. The finding of spontaneous recovery may also be taken as providing some information on the nature of the processes that suppress behavior. If one believes, as Pavlov did, that the return of behavior after nonreinforcement represents the loss of a learning process that occurred during the extinction procedure, it suggests that this learning is malleable, changing with time. That is, it suggests that one property of the extinction mechanism is its relatively lower stability with time. For both of these reasons, many have hoped to learn something about the processes underlying performance loss in extinction by an investigation of spontaneous recovery. Although there have been substantial advances in the neurobiological study of extinction in the last few years (for reviews, see Myers and Davis 2002; Delamater 2004), almost all studies of spontaneous recovery have been at the purely behavioral level. Consequently, the discussion that follows will focus exclusively on such behavioral studies. Previous SectionNext Section Designs for Studying Spontaneous RecoveryThe standard description of spontaneous recovery is that the responding that was depressed during an extinction session is partially restored in a test session that is administered after a delay. As illustrated at the second panel of Figure 1, spontaneous recovery is commonly inferred from a comparison between responding at the end of an extinction session and at the beginning of a test. Greater response in the test is taken to mean that some portion of the initial learning survived the extinction. Implicit in this interpretation is the assumption (1) that the behavior that appears on the early trials of the test session is attributable to the original learning rather than to something else, and (2) that the increase between the extinction and the test represents a reduction in the effect of the learning that occurred in extinction. To justify the first assumption, comparison really should be made between responding to an extinguished stimulus and responding to one that has never been trained prior to extinction but is still given the same  interval between extinction and test sessions in which to â€Å"recover.† Otherwise, it is possible that the increase in responding represents a general tendency to increase responding with time independently of the original acquisition; that is, it might not reflect recovery of the initial learning at all. In fact, there are only a few studies (see Robbins 1990) that have deliberately made such a comparison. But any detailed investigation of spontaneous recovery should be sensitive to this possibility. To justify the second assumption (that the increase in responding represents dissipation of the extinction learning), comparison should be made with a stimulus that has trained, but not been extinguished, and that evokes responding at a level comparable to that of the extinguished stimulus before the delay interval. For instance, one might compare, for the same animal, changes with time in a trained and extinguished stimulus and a stimulus that is only partially trained, so as to attain the same response level. It is only if the former stimulus shows greate r growth with time that one would conclude that there is a loss of the learning that occurred during extinction, as distinct from a general change in performance for any previously trained stimulus showing behavior at that level. Aside from the need to occasionally include these comparisons, the spontaneous recovery design shown in Figure 1B has the drawback of repeated testing with the same stimulus, with the consequence that different numbers of extinction trials have necessarily preceded the trials being compared. A better design, which is also frequently used, is shown in Figure 1C. In that design two stimuli are both trained and extinguished but then given different amounts of time to recovery prior to the test. This design avoids repeated testing on the same stimulus and has the advantage of an explicit test session. But unfortunately, the tests of the two stimuli differ not only in the time since extinction but also in the time since original training and in the overall test context and age of the animal. To avoid these confoundings, we have frequently adopted a somewhat different design for studying spontaneous recovery, as illustrated in Figure 1D. In this comparison, two groups of animals receive co nditioning followed by extinction and a test. The groups differ in the placement of the extinction with regard to the test. For one group (S1) the extinction occurs at a temporal distance from the test, so as to allow spontaneous recovery. For the other group (S2), extinction occurs  immediately prior to test, minimizing recovery. The evidence for recovery is then the difference in responding at the time of the common test. That allows comparison of responding during the same test session, after the same number of extinction trials, to stimuli that share the time since original training but differ in the time since their extinction. The design can be further strengthened if the two stimuli are both trained in the same animal. An especially important advantage of such a within-subject comparison between S1 and S2 is that it involves a common test session in the same animal. This means that any recovery cannot be attributed to general changes in the animals state or to differential similarity of the test conditions to those of original training. One difficulty with the standard procedure for assessing spontaneous recovery is that one part of the comparison comes from a session in which the animal is undergoing an extin ction procedure and is therefore likely to be experiencing a variety of new stimulus events that may have various emotional consequences. The presence of those new events could, in themselves, artificially depress responding to a lower level than that which is warranted by the learning that is occurring. The likely absence of those stimuli at the beginning of the test session could allow greater responding for reasons that are not central to the learning that is occurring in extinction. But the final design avoids such differences in the context of performance for the stimuli being compared. By using within-subject versions of this last procedure, Rescorla (1997a,b) has shown evidence of substantial spontaneous recovery in a variety of conditioning preparations. An example is shown in Figure 2 for a Pavlovian magazine approach situation with rats. In this preparation, S1 and S2 are counterbalanced as a 30-sec light and noise, each paired with the delivery of food and then given nonreinforcement. The result is an increase and decrease in anticipatory responding involving investigation of the food delivery site, the maga zine. A test then takes place either immediately after the last extinction session or after a delay. The comparison of interest is that between S1 and S2 in the common test session. Figure 2 clearly indicates greater recovery for the stimulus extinguished first, S1. One may note that S1 also shows more responding in the test than it did at the end of extinction; but as noted above, this comparison is flawed. Figure 2 View larger version: In this page In a new window Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 2 An illustration of spontaneous recovery using the design shown in Figure 1D. Rat subjects were given Pavlovian magazine-approach training and extinction with two stimuli, S1 and S2, and then tested in a common session. The superior responding in S1, compared with S2, is used to infer spontaneous recovery. Of course, no procedure is without its shortcomings. In this alternative procedure for assessing spontaneous recovery, one of the stimuli must necessarily be extinguished before the other. Consequently, the order in which the stimuli are extinguished, and the interval between training and test, are both confounded with the interval of interest, between extinction and test. Although application of the design has not revealed any resulting differences in the course of extinction itself (Fig. 2), one must still be cautious about the implications of such a confounding. Consequently, it may be most wise to use both procedures C and D in any research program investigating spontaneous reco very. Previous SectionNext Section Bases for Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous recovery is such a widespread phenomenon, both in terms of the variety of learning paradigms in which it occurs and the frequency with which it is reported, that it would be surprising if it had only one source. Indeed, many different sources have been suggested, most of which have received some empirical support. But not all of these are of equal interest in helping us understand the learning involved in extinction. Here, I attempt a rough categorization of those sources. Local Performance EffectsAs noted above, when one makes the standard comparison of responding on the final trials from extinction with that on the initial trials in a test session, one can expect that they will differ in a number of ways unrelated to the learning that occurs in extinction. For instance, the repeated evocation of a conditioned response might lead to temporary fatigue that adds to the loss of behavior. It is not uncommon to see behavior decline over the course of a conditioning session  even when reinforcement continues (see McSweeney and Swindell 1999). Similarly, the surprising deletion of anticipated reinforcement may well lead to emotional responses that have a disruptive effect on performance. For instance, the surprising omission of food can be expected to lead to frustration, which changes the stimulus environment and may evoke responses of its own (see Amsel 1958). Effects such as these might well be expected to dissipate before the beginning of the test session, hence revealing any incompleteness of the extinction process that they masked at the end of the extinction session. Although such effects may contribute to the deterioration of performance during the administration of an extinction procedure, they may have little to do with any underlying learning process. If spontaneous recovery could be accounted for solely on the basis of such effects, it would be of substanti ally less interest. Contributors of this sort to response suppression seem especially likely to affect the standard spontaneous recovery designs that compare responding to the same stimulus in two different sessions. They are less likely to contribute to recovery when it is measured as the difference in responding to two stimuli during the same test session. Indeed, part of the motivation for developing the alternative assessment of spontaneous recovery (D) was to reduce the various general differences that are confounded when responding in two different sessions is compared. Spontaneous Recovery Despite Loss of Acquisition LearningDespite the widespread agreement that spontaneous recovery indicates that the primary extinction process does not involve the erasure of the original learning, there have been some attempts to preserve an erasure theory and still explain recovery. Perhaps the most well known attempt is the suggestion by Skinner (1938) that an extended extinction session leaves the stimuli fro m the beginning of the session incompletely extinguished. Consequently, those stimuli still have some strength that can be exhibited at the beginning of the next session. Skinner seems to have believed that extinction eventually removes all of the original learning but initially leaves the session-beginning stimuli partially effective, thereby explaining spontaneous recovery. Although there is some evidence that stimuli that are explicitly presented by the experimenter at the start of a session can retain some strength when extinction takes place in their absence (see Burstein and Moeser 1971), it seems unlikely that this will fully account  for spontaneous recovery. Several experiments have found evidence of strong spontaneous recovery even when the session starting stimuli are well controlled (see Thomas and Sherman 1986) or when an extinguished stimulus is tested in the middle of a session only after another stimulus has completely lost its spontaneous recovery (see Robbins 1990). Moreover, it is hard to see why this account would anti cipate one of the basic findings of spontaneous recovery, that it increases with the passage of time. A somewhat more successful version of such an account was offered by Estes (1955) as a component of his influential stimulus sampling theory. Estes argued that what experimenters identify as stimuli can actually be viewed as constructed of many elements with occurrence that fluctuates in time. Acquisition and extinction produce changes in the associations between the outcomes and those elements over the course of trials. According to that theory, when an element is paired with a reinforcer, it immediately becomes fully conditioned; when it is presented without reinforcement, it immediately reverts to its unconditioned state. It is only the random fluctuation in the selection of elements over trials that gives the normally observed gradualness to changes in behavior. At heart, this is a theory in which extinction involves the actual erasure of learning. The important point to notice is that when trials are given in close proximity, they tend to share more elements; when trials are separated, then they sample different elements from the pool that constitutes a given stimulus. Consequently, with repeated extinction trials, performance can decrease even though some unsampled elements remain conditioned. With the passage of time, the likelihood of sampling those nonextinguished elements can increase, generating spontaneous recovery. Like the account offered by Skinner, this account correctly predicts that repeated extinction will diminish spontaneous recovery. Unlike that account, it gives no special role to session-initiating stimuli, and it can account for the growth in recovery with time. The stimulus sampling theory also correctly anticipates the occurrence of spontaneous recovery with all of the various assessment procedures. These successes demonstrate that one can account for at least some of the basic facts about spontaneous recovery even on the assumption that the extinction process involves (partial) removal of the original learning. They also highlight the fact that the observation of spontaneous  recovery does not imply that extinction must leave all of original acquisition in place. Spontaneous Recovery as an Indication That Extinction Involves Inhibition If one envisions an extinction procedure as leaving intact even a portion of the original learning, then it is natural to conclude that some new learning is occurring that is superimposed on acquisition and prevents performance. The classic candidate for such new learning has been â€Å"inhibition.† A wide variety of different kinds of inhibition have been proposed, suggesting quite different ideas about the nature of extinction. But in each case, spontaneous recovery is accounted for by the dissipation of that inhibition with the passag e of time. CS-Based InhibitionPavlov (1927) was the first to suggest that extinction involves inhibition and that spontaneous recovery is an indication that this was so. He viewed the learned inhibition that he supposed to occur during extinction as more vulnerable than the excitation that develops in acquisition to such intrusions as the presentation of a new stimulus (i.e., disinhibition) and the passage of time (i.e., spontaneous recovery). Although it is not widely appreciated, Pavlovs notion of inhibition was highly focused on the CS and was envisioned to develop independently of whether or not the reinforcer occurred. Pavlov believed that every CS presentation leads to the building up of a kind of fatigue in the neural cells stimulated by that CS, whether or not the reinforcer followed. This leads to a reduced ability of the CS to stimulate its neural targets, which would in turn lead to reduced behavior. That is, the natural consequence of repeatedly presenting the CS is a deterioration of behavior. However, during acquisition, this process is overwhelmed by the growth of an association which the CS develops with the reinforcer. With rest, the CS-based inhibition fades and responding can recover. Robbins (1990) proposed a related notion of inhibition, which he described in terms of reduced attention to the CS. He suggested that during acquisition, attention to the CS grows whereas during extinction it falls. Part of the reason for the decline of behavior in extinction is then reduced attention to the CS with the attendant loss in its ability to evoke responding. With rest, that attention partially returns. Unlike Pavlov, Robbins envisioned the effectiveness of the CS as dependent on the trial consequence, growing with reinforcement and declining with nonreinforcement. In support of this view,  Robbins (1990) found evidence, in a sign-tracking preparation with pigeons, that a CS los t its ability to serve a variety of different functions during an extinction procedure but then recovered them with time. He trained a CS simultaneously to have an excitatory association with a US and also to serve as a conditional signal that another CS would not be followed by a US. When he extinguished the excitatory association, the CS lost both properties and then regained them both with the passage of time. That result is consistent with the view that one contributor to the loss of behavior with extinction and its restoration with time may be changes in the processing of the CS per se. On the other hand, both Bouton and Peck (1992) and Rescorla (1997a) have found evidence for spontaneous recovery following counter-conditioning in which one US is replaced with another. Because counter-conditioning yields a CS that continues to produce some behavior, those cases of spontaneous recovery seem unlikely to be attributable to loss and recovery of the processing of the CS. Of course, the processes underlying spontaneous recovery after such procedures may differ from those underlying the changes after extinction. Response-Based InhibitionShortly after Pavlovs work became available in this country, Hull (1943) suggested a similar account of extinction and spontaneous recovery that focused on the response rather than on the stimulus. As part of a multiprocess account of extinction, Hull argued that each occurrence of a response leads to the building up of a fatigue-like process that is specific to that response and that reduces its subsequent likelihood of occurrence. This process contributes to the decrease in performance during extinction but dissipates with time, permitting spontaneous recovery. Similar to Pavlov, Hull seems to have believed that the changes in this response-fatigue are independent of reinforcement contingencies; indeed, he believed it left no permanent learning impact at all. That is, this particular inhibitory notion is more akin to the performance effects discussed above. It has proven difficult to confirm the most obvious implication of such an approach, that the effortfulness of the response should influence the course of extinction and spontaneous recovery (see Mackintosh 1974). But, one advantage that can be claimed for the alternative test of spontaneous recovery described above is tha t it provides a common test session in which all stimuli should share any general fatigue processes. Outcome-Based InhibitionOne way of viewing  extinction is that a CS that was once followed by an effective outcome is now followed by an ineffective one. Indeed, there is evidence that if the outcome potency is deliberately partially reduced, then behavior partially deteriorates (see Wagner and Rescorla 1972; Kehoe and White 2002). This suggests the possibility that one change that occurs in extinction involves a reduction in the memory of the outcome itself. Based on this kind of thinking, Rescorla and his collaborators (see Rescorla and Heth 1975; Rescorla and Cunningham 1978) suggested that one process that occurs in an extinction procedure is a depression in what they called the â€Å"US representation.† This led them to explore manipulations that might affect the state of the US representation independently of its association with a particular CS. By using a fear conditioning preparation in rats, they documented the phenomenon of â€Å"reinstatement† first report ed by Pavlov, that responding could be restored to an extinguished CS by separate presentations of the US alone. Although others (see Bouton 1984) have given different accounts, Rescorla and Cunningham described this manipulation as restoring a portion of the extinction-depressed US representation. They also argued that there might be a recovery in the US representation with time, leading to the phenomenon of spontaneous recovery of responding to the CS. In support of that possibility they found that, under some circumstances, recovery could be undermined by the nonreinforcement of another CS immediately prior to testing, a manipulation presumed to reduce the US representation. However, various other implications of this notion have not received support. For instance, Robbins (1990) found evidence of independence in spontaneous recovery for two stimuli that had been conditioned with the same US. Moreover, Tomie et al. (1980) reported spontaneous recovery after an extinction procedure in which the US was continued but made independent of the CS, a procedure that should maintain the US representa tion. Nevertheless, it is possible that changes in the memory for the US may make a contribution to spontaneous recovery in some preparations. Associative InhibitionMost contemporary views of Pavlovian inhibition involve not individual events but rather associations between events. For instance, Konorski (1948) argued that a variety of conditioning paradigms, including extinction, lead to the development of an inhibitory association between the CS and US that is parallel to, but the opposite of, the excitatory  associations set up during acquisition. In later writings, Konorski (1967) offered a somewhat different account, according to which inhibitory learning involves associations between the CS and a consequence that is the opposite of the US, the â€Å"no US.† Most contemporary discussions of Pavlovian inhibition implicitly accept one or the other of these views. The standard ways of detecting such associative inhibition are to ask whether an inhibitory stimulus can reduce responding to an otherwise effective excitor (a summation test) or is slow to acquire excitation if it now receives an excitatory training treatment (a retardation test; Rescorla 1969). Most contemporary evidence suggests that an extinguished stimulus does not in fact demonstrate net inhibition with either of these tests. Presumably this is because the inhibition that builds up during nonreinforcement is only just sufficient to counteract the original excitation, but does not develop beyond that level so as to generate a net inhibitory stimulus. However, there is some evidence that an originally neutral stimulus that accompanies an excitatory CS during an extinction procedure does capture inhibition, as assessed by these tests (see Rescorla 1979, 1999). Moreover, there a re some reports (see Henderson 1978) that a net inhibitory stimulus does lose some of its inhibitory properties with the passage of time, in the way required if this were to contribute to spontaneous recovery. An alternative associative basis for extinction has been proposed by Colwill (1991) and explored by Rescorla (1993). According to that account, the inhibition that develops during extinction involves associations between the stimulus and a response. These inhibitory S-R associations are envisioned as existing side by side with excitatory associations that involve the US. Consistent with this view (but not with the notion of inhibition between the CS and US), Rescorla (2001b) used outcome-specific transfer procedures to reveal that the CS-US associations maintained their full net strength after extinction, despite the reduction in responding. Moreover, he found no evidence that those CS-US associations changed in the way expected with the passage of time if they were to be the basis of spontaneous recovery. He proposed instead that extinction can involve an associative response-specific process that depresses responding but deteriorates with time. An alternative view of Pavlovian conditioned inhibition in terms of modulation has received substantial recent attention. Several investigators (see Holland 1983,  Rescorla 1985) have suggested that under some circumstances an inhibitory stimulus does not develop an association with a separate event, such as US or a response, but rather acquires the ability to control the strength of an excitatory CS-US association. This type of inhibition is not the opposite of an excitatory association but rather plays more of a hierarchical role, modulating a CS-US association. Bouton (1991) has suggested that both contextual and temporal stimuli can serve this modulatory role for a stimulus subjected to an extinction procedure. During the extinction procedure, the excitatory association is seen as remaining intact but being disabled by the presence of contextual or temporal stimuli that had accompanied nonreinforcement. With a change in either the context or the temporal stimuli, this inhibitory process is attenuated, allowing the return of performance. The phenomenon of â€Å"renewal† provides evidence for this view. If, following extinction, the stimulus is tested in a different context, there can be a substantial recovery of responding (see Bouton 1991). If one views the passage of time as analogous to changing the context, this view provides a way of conceptualizing spontaneous recovery. Differential RetrievalThe inhibitory accounts of extinction and spontaneous recovery all envision the strength of original learning as remaining unchanged throughout extinction and spontaneous recovery. They see the decrease in responding during extinction as attributable to the growth of the inhibitory process, and the increase in responding with spontaneous recovery as attributable to the dissipation of that inhibitory process. In effect, the memory for the extinction process loses strength with the pas sage of time. An alternative framework for understanding extinction and spontaneous recovery involves differential retrieval of the acquisition and extinction experiences, both of which remain fully intact. For instance, Spear (1971) and Bouton (1993) have both noted the formal analogy between interference paradigms as studied in humans and the acquisition/extinction sequence of Pavlovian conditioning. In both cases, the organism is exposed to two competing pieces of information that might be expected to interfere with each other. This led both investigators to the proposal that differential performance might reflect differential likelihood of retrieving the two experiences, rather than a weakening of stored information about either experience. According to this view, manipulations that make the  retrieval of one experience or the other more likely will result in changes in overall performance. For instance, a stimulus that accompanies extinction might serve as a retrieval cue, presentation of which would promote the retrieval of the memory for extinction. Evidence for such a process can be found in the ability of some such stimuli to diminish the magnitude of spontaneous recovery (se e Brooks and Bouton 1993). A related view, focusing specifically on spontaneous recovery, is incorporated in Devenports (1998) temporal weighting rule. According to that rule, when an animal has multiple experiences with a stimulus prior to a test, it weights those experiences according to the relative time that has passed between each and the test. In the case of acquisition followed by extinction, this means that performance will deteriorate under the currently experienced nonreinforced treatment. However, as time passes, the relative temporal advantage enjoyed by the recent nonreinforcement experience will diminish, leading to spontaneous recovery. On views such as these, there is a permanence for both the acquisition and extinction experiences; what changes with time is their relative likelihood of retrieval. As this discussion indicates, a broad range of different processes have been envisioned as contributing to the decrement in performance resulting from an extinction procedure and to the recovery from that decrement with the passage of time. Moreover, one can identify evidence supporting each idea. It seems likely that each of these may contribute to the changes in various situations. However, none of them seems sufficient to provide an account on its own. One challenge that each contributor faces is to provide an account of the demonstrated empirical determinants of spontaneous recovery. For this reason it is worth reviewing some of those determinants. Previous SectionNext Section Basic Empirical PropertiesDespite the centrality of spontaneous recovery to the phenomenon of extinction, there is actually surprisingly little well-documented information on its detailed properties. However, four features of spontaneous recovery seem to be widely accepted. Spontaneous Recovery Increases in a Negatively Accelerated Fashion Over Time Almost every description of spontaneous recovery includes the claim that recovery is greater the greater the delay between extinction and test. Indeed, there is a sense in which greater recovery with more time is a defining property.  Moreover, the form of that increase appears to be negatively accelerated. For instance, in recent years, negatively accelerated recovery has been found with eyelid conditioning in rabbits (Haberlandt et al.1978), sign-tracking in pigeons (Robbins 1990), and fear-conditioning in rats (Quirk 2002). Almost all of the potential contributors to recovery listed above appear to be consistent with such a pattern o f change. Although the various inhibitory theories make no specific predictions about how that inhibition fades with time, the negatively accelerated nature of many biological processes makes the finding unsurprising. The stimulus sampling mechanism described by Estes (1955) and the differential weighting rule proposed by Devenport (1998) also yield this expectation. Perhaps the only potential contributor that does not anticipate this is Skinners (1938) suggestion that at the beginning of the session stimuli retain their ability to evoke a response. Spontaneous Recovery Is IncompleteAlthough Pavlov claimed to have observed full recovery from extinction, most other investigators have reported only partial recovery. Even when recovery of responding appears to be complete on the first test trial, the rapid loss of responding over the course of testing suggests that recovery was actually less than full (notice, for instance, the rapid loss during testing shown in Fig. 2). The incompleteness of recovery appears to be mandated by some of the mechanisms described above. For instance, the stimulus sampling account of Estes and the weighting rule of Devenport appear incapable of allowing the impact of extinction to disappear altogether. The other mechanisms are less well-specified in this regard. Spontaneous Recovery Declines With Repeated ExtinctionIt is widely agreed that the greater the amount of extinction, the less the magnitude of spontaneous recovery after any fixed waiting time. This most frequently shows up as the reduced amount of recovery from day to day over multiple days of extinction. An illustration of that decline is shown in Figure 3, which displays results from a recent magazine-approach study with rat subjects done in our laboratory. That figure shows responding during repeated daily extinction sessions in which a 30-sec noise was presented eight times without its food pellet. Another stimulus, a light, received intervening reinforced trials. It is clear that there is repeated recovery of responding that gets smaller over the course of extinction. Figure 3 View larger version: In this page In a new window Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 3 The decline in the magnitude of spontaneous recovery with repeated extinction. Rat subjects were given Pavlovian magazine-approach training with a noise and then repeated extinction sessions. Actually, in the absence of some better understanding of scaling issues, it is difficult to compare quantitatively the amounts of recovery for stimuli that have undergone different amounts of extinction. Clearly, if minimal extinction has occurred, there is less decrease in behavior and hence less opportunity for recovery to occur. Similarly, with massive extinction, performance may be at a floor, and hence, even substantial recovery may be difficult to detect. But most mechanisms of recovery appear to anticipate that the deeper the extinction the less the recovery. That prediction is obligatory for accounts of recovery such as that offered by Estes and by Devenport, who see repeated extinction as accumulating a relatively permanent depressive process. Data such as those shown in Figure 3 are commonly taken as consistent with this prediction. Spontaneous Recovery Can Be Brought Under Stimulus ControlThere is good evidence that the learning process that occurs during extinction can be brought under stimulus control. For instance, Rescorla (1979) reported that a stimulus present during the nonreinforcement of a previously trained excitor took on the properties of a conditioned inhibitor, suppressing responding to other excitors. Indeed, the so-called conditioned inhibition paradigm consists of little more than intermixing reinforced and nonreinforced presentations of a stimulus while signaling the nonreinforced presentations by a second stimulus. Similarly, Bouton (1991) has reported that if the context present during extinction is removed by testing in another context, then the suppressive effects of extinction are reduced and behavior is â€Å"renewed.† Brooks and Bouton (1993) have extended these observations to the responding observed in spontaneous recovery. They found (see also, Brooks 2000) that if an explicit stimulus is present during extinction of an excitor, then that stimulus has the ability to diminish  spontaneous recovery if it is presented at the time of the test. Although few theories of extinction are challenged by the observation that whatever is occurring in extinction can be brought under the control of a stimulus, retrieval theories seem like the most natural account. For instance, Bouton has argued that a stimulus present during extinction is especially good at retrieving a memory for a CS-US association. There is now substantial evidence that one stimulus can be learned as a signal of the relation between another stimulus and the US (see Schmajuk and Holland 1998). Such modulation or â€Å"occasion setting† could be the mechanism by which explicit stimuli, contexts, or even time, might activate the mem ory of a CS-US association (see Bouton 1991, 1993). Previous SectionNext Section Determinants Needing Further InvestigationIn addition to these four well-established findings, there are a variety of other manipulations that have been claimed to affect spontaneous recovery but for which there is substantially less or even contradictory evidence. This is unfortunate because the effects of many of these manipulations might be informative in identifying the contributions of particular mechanisms of recovery. The Symmetry of Spontaneous Recovery and RegressionAccounts of spontaneous recovery differ in the degree to which they treat extinction as engaging a special learning process with distinctive properties, such as the likelihood of its memory fading in time. Beginning with Pavlovs, the various proposals of inhibitory processes have tended to see them as different from excitatory process precisely in their greater instability with the passage of time. This is clearly true for the fatigue-like processes mentioned by Pavlov, Robbins, and Hull, but it also seems true o f some associative inhibition accounts, such as those described by Rescorla and Bouton. By contrast, the stimulus sampling theory of Estes and accounts that appeal to retrieval or relative weighting seem to make little distinction between acquisition and extinction processes in their inherent vulnerability to time. They see the animal as integrating two experiences that it receives sequentially in time in a similar way regardless of the identity of those processes. This means that the latter accounts anticipate that one should observe a companion phenomenon to spontaneous recovery from extinction if one were to interchange the order in which extinction and acquisition were administered.  That is, they expect to see regression of responding after acquisition if that acquisition were preceded by some sort of nonrein-forced training. The evidence for such regression is highly mixed. Notice that the simple deterioration of performance from day to day during acquisition is not sufficient to identify regression that is the opposite of spontaneous recovery. The critical obse rvation is that there is a deterioration in performance that is attributable to a prior history of nonreinforcement, just as the critical observation for spontaneous recovery is that there is an improvement with time that is specific to stimuli that have a history of reinforcement. When animals are given in sequence two reinforcement experiences that differ in reinforcer valence or frequency, there is evidence that regression in the direction of the first performance can be observed with time (see Bouton and Peck 1992; Mazur 1996). But the results are less clear when nonreinforcement of a stimulus precedes reinforcement prior to the waiting period. Some early experiments reported positive results (see Spear et al. 1965; Konorski 1967). But some more recent studies have found no evidence for regression or the opposite results (see Kraemer et al. 1991; Rescorla 2001b). Clearly it would be valuable to understand the circumstances under which one obtains either regression or its opposite if one is to evaluate the contributions of various mechanisms to spontaneous recovery. It will surely be important to distinguish among different kinds of nonreinforcement experience that might precede reinforcement. The simple exposure to a stimulus prior to any reinforcement is certain to endow it with properties different from those of a stimulus that signals nonreinforcement explicitly, as in the case of conditioned inhibition training or even extinction. But there are not sufficient data to indicate whether or not this distinction matters for the production of regression. Recovery Following Massed or Spaced Extinction TrialsThere is reason to anticipate that conducting extinction with short intertrial intervals may encourage more rapid response decrement followed by more substantial recovery. Certainly this is the expectation of accounts such as that of Hull, which emphasizes short-term fatigue-like effects, and of Estes, which emphasizes that massing of trials would yield repeated sampling of the same stimulus elements but neglect of others. Indeed, one might argue that there is a logical sense in which spaced trials should lead to slower decrement  and less recovery. Presumably widely spaced trials would allow for any recovery between individual trials, resulting in slower behavioral loss over the course of an extinction procedure but more substantial change by the time that a test for recovery is imposed. Despite the appeal of these arguments, the evidence on the impact of massing or spacing extinction trials is quite mixed. A number of investigators (see Rescorla and Durlach 1987; Cain et al. 2003) have reported that massing produces rapid loss of performance. However, Rescorla and Durlach reported no difference in the magnitude of responding in a subsequent test for spontaneous recovery and Cain et al. (2003) reported continued less responding after massed extinction even with the passage of time. To complicate matters further, Stanley (1952) reported that for an instrumental training task, massing slowed extinction on one measure and speeded it on another in an instrumental choice situation. Interval Between Learning and ExtinctionAlthough most attention has focused on the interval between extinction and the recovery test, it is also of interest to ask about the impact of the interval between the original training and extinction, as a determinant of spontaneous recovery. The retrieval theory proposed by Spear and the weighting rule described by Devenport both suggest that spontaneous recovery should be maximal when the interval between acquisition and extinction is minimized. In both cases, the intuition is that when training and extinction are close in time, it should be more difficult for the animal to recall which is the more recent. Immediately after extinction, the relative temporal recency of the nonreinforced experience should be maximal. However, as time passes, and the two experiences are more equally distant in time, they should become more equivalent in their likelihood of being retrieved. The increase in the relative likelihood of retrieving the original acquisition experience would then produce spontaneous recovery. A similar reasoning would lead to the relatively greater impact of the acquisition experience according to the weighting rule. Mechanisms of recovery that appeal to the loss of the extinction experience have no natural way to predict that the interval between training and extinction should matter. Unfortunately, there are very few attempts to examine this possibility. There is some supportive evidence from studies of proactive inhibition in humans (Underwood and Freund 1968) and from  counter-conditioning in rats (Gordon and Spear 1973), but little for the case of extinction. Recently, Rescorla (2004) has reported that a longer time interval between training and test diminishes spontaneous recovery in magazine approach and instrumental responding in rats and in sign-tracking in pigeons. One illustration is shown in Figure 4. That figure displays the results of extinction and testing with two stimuli given acquisition, extinction, and a test for spontaneous recovery in a magazine-approach procedure using rat subjects. The stimuli shared the same 48-h recovery interval after extinction but differed in that a greater interval (8 d versus 1 d) intervened between training and extinction for S1 than for S2. The two stimuli showed virtually identical behavior over the course of extinction. However, the results of a test for spontaneous recovery given 48 h after extinction show greater spontaneous recovery for the stimulus with the shorter training/extinction interval (S2). Figure 4 View larger version: In this page In a new window Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 4 Evidence for greater spontaneous recovery with a greater interval between training and extinction. Rat subjects were given Pavlovian magazine-approach training, extinction, and a common test for spontaneous recovery with two stimuli, S1 and S2. The stimuli differed in the interval between their original training and extinction. Results such as these suggest that, consistent with some retrieval theories, spontaneous recovery may be a decreasing function of the acquisition/extinction interval. But clearly more work needs to be done on this potentially informative parameter. Previous SectionNext Section Conclusion The picture that emerges from this discussion of spontaneous recovery is one of a process that is greatly in need of further empirical investigation. The available evidence fails to identify any one proposed process as the sole basis for spontaneous recovery. However, there is also evidence in support of all of the suggestions so far offered. This, together  with the ubiquity of spontaneous recovery, encourages the belief that it is a result that is multiply determined. Perhaps this is not surprising because it seems almost certain that the response decrement that is observed in extinction itself has multiple contributors. The fact that spontaneous recovery is likely to have multiple sources limits our ability to use it to identify the learning underlying extinction. The inference that extinction does not fully remove all of original acquisition seems secure. Spontaneous recovery is joined by a variety of other phenomena, such as disinhibition, renewal, reinstatement, and augmented summation (see Reberg 1972) as a basis for that inference. But the simple observation of spontaneous recovery does not force the inference that all of original learning remains nor even that the learning that occurred during extinction fades in time. In the light of this conclusion, it is unfortunate that we do not have a clearer picture of how some of the parameters of most potential interest affect spontaneous recovery. But it suggests that if one is to use spontaneous recovery as a tool to understand the nature of the processes occurring in extinction, one cannot simply celebrate its occurrence or its failure to occur. We will have to do much more analytic experiments determining the circumstances under which it occurs in the particular extinction situation under study.